The fascinating Cantor's Black-headed Snake, Sibynophis sagittarius, is a species of snake found in South Asia. This non-venomous snake, a member of the Sibynophiidae family, is well-known for its unique physical characteristics and broad geographic distribution. This article reviews the physiological characteristics, behaviour, distribution, and scientific categorization of this intriguing species.

Sibynophis sagittarius (Source:- Indiabiodiversityboard.org)

With a maximum length of 31 centimetres, it is a small snake. Its slim, thin body ends with a typical tail that has a pointy tip. The black spots are spaced evenly along the vertebral column, giving the upper body a brown colour. The colour of the side body is greyish and is distinguished from the colour of the upper body by a continuous pattern of black dots. The underside has a yellow-green colour with blackish spots on the ventral scales' outer border. The eyes are moderately big, and circular in the pupil, and the head is slightly wider than the neck. Up till the neck, the head is typically black, with a white ring at the end. A brownish collar or two unconnected spots on top of the neck are present.

Usually one anterior temporal scale, the loreal is small or frequently united with the posterior nasal or prefrontal scale, and its lower margin passes between the sixth and seventh supralabials. The parietal is in contact with both postoculars. This snake species has seven or eight supralabials, of which the third and fourth or third to fifth are in contact with the eyes. smooth dorsal scales with 17 rows in the mid-body.

Reported from states such as Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu, Odisha, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal. It is also found in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.

Cantor's Black-headed Snakes are known for being evasive and non-aggressive. When confronted with danger, they usually avoid confrontation and take a defensive stance. It can roam through a variety of landscapes with ease because this behaviour is in line with its survival instincts. The Cantor's Black-headed Snake reproduces by oviparous means. With the designation BMNH 60.3.19.12.68, the holotype was obtained from Bengal, Tirhoot. According to the IUCN Red List, the Cantor's Black-headed Snake is now classified as Least Concern (LC). For its conservation, it is imperative to keep an eye out for any dangers like pollution, habitat loss, and human encroachment.

The unique characteristics and adaptable behaviour of the Cantor's Black-headed Snake serve as a symbol of the diverse range of South Asian reptiles. To save this cryptic species and ensure its continued existence in the natural environment, conservation and scientific endeavours must continue.

Literature Cited:

1.   Bhattarai, S., Pokheral, C. P., Lamichhane, B. R., Regmi, U. R., Ram, A. K., Subedi, N. (2018). Amphibians and reptiles of Parsa National Park, Nepal. Amphibian & Reptile Conservation, 12(1), 35–48 (e155).

2.     Bhattarai, S., Gurung, A., Lamichhane, B. R., Regmi, R., Dhungana, M., Kumpakha, B., & Subedi, N. (2020). Amphibians and Reptiles of Chure Range, Nepal. President Chure Terai-Madhesh Conservation Development Board and National Trust for Nature Conservation, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.

3.     Boulenger, G. A. (1893). Catalogue of the snakes in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) I. London: Taylor & Francis. Boulenger, G. A. (1890). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor & Francis, London, xviii, 541 pp.

4.     Cantor, T. (1839). Spicilegium serpentium indicorum [part 2]. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1839, 49-55.

5.   Captain, A., Gower, D. J., David, P., & Bauer, A. M. (2004). Taxonomic status of the colubrid snake Sibynophis subpunctatus (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854). Hamadryad, 28(1&2), 90-94.

6.  Das, I., & Palden, J. (2000). A herpetological collection from Bhutan, with new country records. Herpetological Review, 31(4), 256-258.

7.  Dutta, S. K., Nair, M. V., Mohapatra, P. P., & Mahapatra, A. K. (2009). Amphibians and reptiles of Similipal Biosphere Reserve. Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India.

8.     Livraison. J.B. Bailière et Fils, Paris. Kästle, W., Rai, K., & Schleich, H. H. (2013). FIELD GUIDE to Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal. ARCO-Nepal e.V., 625 pp.

9.     Kramer, E. (1977). Zur Schlangenfauna Nepals. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 84(3), 721-761.

10. Mehra, G. S., Mohanty, N., & Dutta, S. K. (2022). Occurrence patterns of herpetofauna in different habitat types of western Terai Arc Landscape, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 14(5), 21010–21018.

11.  Murthy, T. S. N. (2010). The reptile fauna of India. B.R. Publishing, New Delhi, 332 pp. Pandey, D. P. (2018). New records of snakes from Chitwan National Park and vicinity, Central Nepal. Herpetology Notes, 11, 679-696.

12. Patel, H., & Vyas, R. (2019). Reptiles of Gujarat, India: Updated Checklist, Distribution, and Conservation Status. Herpetology Notes, 12, 765-777.

13. Rawat, Y. B., Bhattarai, S., Poudyal, L. P., & Subedi, N. (2020). Herpetofauna of Shuklaphanta National Park, Nepal. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 12(5), 15587–15611.

14. Sahi, D. N., & Koul, S. (2020). Annotated List of Amphibians and Reptiles of Jammu and Kashmir State. In: Dar G. & Khuroo A. (eds) Biodiversity of the Himalaya: Jammu and Kashmir State. Topics in Biodiversity and Conservation, vol 18.

15. Springer, Singapore. Saikia, U., Sharma, D. K., & Sharma, R. M. (2007). Checklist of the Reptilian fauna of Himachal Pradesh, India. Reptile Rap, 8, 6-9.

16.  Sharma, R. C. (2004). Handbook Indian Snakes. AKHIL BOOKS, New Delhi, 292 pp. Singh, J., Dutta, S. K., & Singh, H. (2021). Herpetofauna of Punjab: The Field Guide. New Era Book Agency, Chandigarh, 82 pp.

 Ornate Flying Snake: Chrysopelea ornata

The ornate flying snake, Chrysopelea ornata, is certainly one of the most interesting species that obviously underwent reptilian adaptive radiation in Southeast Asia. This species distributes from India to Indonesia, earning the added attraction of many scientists and nature lovers alike with its behavior of gliding from one tree to another.

Chrysopelea ornata (Indiabiodiversity.org)

Physical Description:

The Ornate Flying Snake is long and slender, reaching a length of about 1.2 meters. It bears an exciting pattern of green, yellow, and black colors that blend together; these colors help in camouflaging and act as a warning to some predators. The ventral scales of this snake are only slightly keeled to provide grip during climbing and gliding. The head is distinctly separated from the neck, with large eyes that provide excellent vision. Coloration is bright with well-marked readily distinguishing characteristics in its homeland habitat.

Scalation Pattern

The scalation of Chrysopelea ornata refers to a fundamental feature of its morphology, which is as follows:

• Dorsal Scales: 15 rows of smooth scales at midbody.

• Ventral Scales: 200-250 ventral scales that are slightly keeled.

• Subcaudal Scales: 90-120 pairs of subcaudal scales.

• Head Scales:

o       Frontal Scale: Single, large, and hexagonal.

o          Parietal Scales: Generally, a pair behind the frontal scale.

o          Rostral Scale: A single scale at the end of the snout.

o          Nasal Scales: A pair covering the nostrils.

o          Loreal Scales: Usually one or two between the nasal and preocular scales.

o          Preocular Scales: Generally, one or two above the eye.

o          Postocular Scales: Usually, two or three behind the eye.

o          Temporal Scales: Rows covering the sides of the head.

o          Supralabial Scales: 7-9 along the upper lip.

o          Infralabial Scales: 8-10 scales along the lower lip.

 Habitat and Distribution

Chrysopelea ornata is distributed in most types of habitats across Southeast Asia, from India and Sri Lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia, all the way to the Philippines. It inhabits thick forests, gardens, and cultivated farms with trees covering the area. The species is known for being arboreal, as much time is spent within the trees, where they can hunt and avoid some terrestrial predators.

Behaviour and Diet

The Ornate Flying Snake is a diurnal animal. The species is an exceptional climber, its scales holding fast on tree bark and other surfaces. The most exciting behavior of this snake is gliding from tree to tree. It flattens its body and goes on lateral undulations, gliding up to 100 meters to help it move about in its arboreal habitat with ease.

Chrysopelea ornata primarily feeds on small vertebrates, from lizards and frogs to birds and small mammals. Constriction and envenoming are used in overpowering their prey, but the venom does not pose any threat to humans.

 Reproduction

The breeding season of the Ornate Flying Snake generally occurs during the rainy season. Males have combats and displays for the females. Laying their clutches of 6 to 12 eggs in hidden, secure locations such as leaf litter, and tree hollows, among others follow the mating. The young ones hatch after a two-month incubation period, totally independent from birth.

Conservation Status

The Ornate Flying Snake is currently listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. However, the destruction of habitats is a very potent threat to this species, just like it is to so many others, especially through deforestation for urbanization. Conservation will ensure that this remarkable species may survive in the long term. Forest habitats need to be conserved with reduced deforestation for the population of Chrysopelea ornata and other arboreal snakes to be sustained.

Conclusion

The Ornate Flying Snake, with its bright coloration, arboreal lifestyle, and its gliding ability, itself gives the best example of ingenuity in nature. This species is part of the rich biodiversity present in Southeast Asian forests; therefore, it is essential to understand and conserve them. Continued research and conservation of this wonderful species can guarantee that Chrysopelea ornata will continue to thrive in our natural world.

Literature Cited: 

1.     Das, I. 2012. A Naturalist's Guide to the Snakes of Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: John Beaufoy Publishing.

2.     Murphy JC, Voris HK. 2014. A Checklist and Key to the Homalopsid Snakes (Reptilia, Squamata, Serpentes), with the Description of New Genera. Fieldiana Life and Earth Sci 8: 1–43.

3.     Smith, M. A. (1943). The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma: Reptilia and Amphibia (Vol. III, Serpentes). London, UK: Taylor & Francis.

4.     Cox, M. J., van Dijk, P. P., Nabhitabhata, J., & Thirakhupt, K. (1998). A Photographic Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. Sanibel Island, FL: Ralph Curtis Publishing.

5.     IUCN. (2021). Chrysopelea ornata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T198273A151796452. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T198273A151796452.en

6.     Whitaker, R., & Captain, A. (2004). Snakes of India: The Field Guide. Chennai, India: Draco Books.

7.     Das, A., and Vijayakumar, S. P. 2020. The Herpetofauna of India: Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation. In K. Kunte, & U. Ramakrishnan (Eds.), State of India's Biodiversity and Conservation pp. 457-483. Springer.

8.     Schleich, H. H., Kästle, W., & Kabisch, K. (1996). Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal: Biology, Systematics, Field Guide. A. R. G. Gantner Verlag K. G.

9.     Jayawardena, S., & Gomez, M. V. (2017). An Overview of Amphibians and Reptiles of Sri Lanka. In A. Sooriyabandara, M. Ekanayake, & A. Sooriyabandara, Diversity and Conservation of Asian Primates, 237-255. Springer.

10.  Deepak, V., & Karanth, P. (2018). A Review of the Green Keelback Snake, Rhabdophis nigrocinctus (Serpentes: Colubridae), from India with the First Detailed Account of Natural History, Morphology and Lineage Diversity in the Western Ghats Radiation. Taprobanica, 10(2), 111-126.

 The Green Keelback Snake, scientifically known as Rhabdophis nigrocinctus, epitomizes the rich biodiversity of Southeast Asia with its captivating attributes and intriguing behaviors. This species, widely distributed across the region from the dense rainforests of Indonesia to the subtropical landscapes of Nepal, boasts a striking appearance characterized by its slender, elongated body adorned in vibrant green scales and a distinctive dark dorsal stripe. This coloration serves as a remarkable camouflage adaptation, allowing the snake to seamlessly blend into the lush vegetation of its habitat, evading both predators and prey alike. Young specimens exhibit additional distinctive markings, including an inverted black V-mark on the neck, with its apex forwards, reaching to the frontal shield. A second, smaller V-mark may appear behind, with the intervening space being bright yellow or orange. Furthermore, a black stripe from the eye to the angle of the mouth, along with more or less regular transverse spots or cross-bars on the back and tail, contribute to the unique appearance of juvenile Green Keelbacks. While its physical features are certainly notable, the Green Keelback's behavioral repertoire further underscores its ecological significance. Diurnal in nature, these snakes actively forage during the daytime, preying upon amphibians, insects, and small vertebrates in the vicinity of water bodies. Notably, their ability to sequester toxins from consumed prey serves as a fascinating example of evolutionary adaptations in predator-prey interactions.

The Green Keelback, Rhabdophis nigrocinctus, recorded from Dandeli, Karnataka

·  Phylum: Chordata

·  Class: Reptilia

·  Order: Squamata

·  Suborder: Serpentes

·  Family: Colubridae

·  Genus: Rhabdophis

·  Species: Rhabdophis nigrocinctus

Physical Description: The Green Keelback snake boasts a slender and elongated body, well-adapted for navigating through the dense vegetation of its habitat. Adults typically measure around 1 to 1.2 meters (approximately 3 to 4 feet) in length, although individuals on the larger end of the spectrum have been recorded. Their body is adorned with scales that give it a rough texture, especially noticeable along the dorsal surface due to the keeling of these scales. The coloration of the Green Keelback can vary, but the most common hue is a vibrant green, serving as excellent camouflage against the lush greenery of its surroundings. Some populations may exhibit a more yellowish or brownish tint, depending on environmental factors and genetic variations. Along the length of its body, a distinct dark stripe runs dorsally, contrasting with the bright green or yellow background and giving rise to its common name, "keelback."

Juvenile green keelback in Pune, India recorded by Ashlin

Scalation Pattern: The scalation pattern of the Green Keelback snake is a key aspect of its morphology, providing valuable diagnostic features for species identification. Along the dorsal surface, the snake typically possesses around 21 to 23 rows of keeled scales. These scales not only contribute to the snake's rough texture but also aid in gripping surfaces during movement. Ventral scales, found on the underside of the snake, number approximately 145 to 155, arranged neatly in rows to facilitate locomotion. The anal plate, located at the base of the tail, is a single large scale that serves various functions, including waste elimination and support during locomotion. Subcaudal scales, found beneath the tail, are typically paired and range from 57 to 67 in number. Each scale plays a role in stabilizing the snake's movement, especially when navigating uneven terrain.

Head Scales:

• ·       Frontal Scale: Single, large, and hexagonal.
• ·       Parietal Scales: Usually a pair of scales located behind the frontal scale.
• ·       Rostral Scale: Single scale at the tip of the snout.
• ·       Nasal Scales: A pair of scales covering the nostrils.
• ·       Loreal Scales: Typically one or two scales between the nasal and preocular scales.
• ·       Preocular Scales: Usually one or two scales above the eye.
• ·       Postocular Scales: Typically two or three scales behind the eye.
• ·       Temporal Scales: Rows of scales covering the sides of the head.
• ·       Supralabial Scales: Scales along the upper lip, usually numbering 7 to 9.
• ·       Infralabial Scales: Scales along the lower lip, usually numbering 8 to 10.

These scales, along with other cranial features, are crucial for species identification and taxonomy.

Habitat and Distribution: The Green Keelback snake is well-adapted to a wide range of habitats throughout its distribution in Southeast Asia. It is commonly found in tropical and subtropical environments characterized by dense vegetation and proximity to water bodies such as marshes, ponds, streams, and rice paddies. These semi-aquatic snakes thrive in habitats with ample hiding places and abundant prey, allowing them to fulfil their ecological niche as predators of amphibians and small vertebrates. Their distribution spans across various countries, including India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia, although specific ranges may vary within these regions due to habitat preferences and geographic barriers.

Behaviour and Diet: Green Keelback snakes are primarily diurnal, meaning they are active during the daytime hours when their prey, such as frogs and toads, are also active. Their semi-aquatic nature often leads them to inhabit areas near water bodies, where they can hunt for prey and bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature. Despite their slender appearance, Green Keelbacks are skilled predators, using stealth and ambush tactics to capture their prey. Their diet mainly consists of amphibians, although they may also consume small fish, insects, and occasionally small reptiles. Notably, Green Keelbacks possess a unique adaptation that allows them to sequester toxins from the toads they consume, particularly bufadienolides. These toxins are stored in specialized glands located on the back of their necks, serving as a chemical defense against predators.

Adult green Keelback recorded by Davidvraju

Reproduction: The reproductive behaviour of Green Keelback snakes typically follows a seasonal pattern, with breeding occurring during the rainy season when environmental conditions are favourable. Males actively seek out females for mating, engaging in courtship rituals that may involve tactile and olfactory cues. After successful copulation, females develop and lay clutches of eggs in secluded locations, such as leaf litter or rotting vegetation, to protect them from predators and environmental fluctuations. The number of eggs laid per clutch can vary but usually ranges from 10 to 20 eggs. Once laid, the eggs undergo an incubation period of several weeks, during which time they are vulnerable to predation and environmental stressors. Upon hatching, the young Green Keelbacks emerge fully formed and ready to embark on their journey of growth and survival.

Conservation Status: The conservation status of the Green Keelback snake varies across its range, with populations facing different levels of threat depending on local environmental conditions and human activities. While the species is generally considered to be of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), certain populations may be susceptible to habitat destruction, pollution, and collection for the pet trade. Habitat loss due to deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization poses a significant threat to Green Keelback populations, leading to habitat fragmentation and loss of suitable habitats. Pollution from agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and urban development further degrades the quality of remaining habitats, impacting the health and survival of these snakes and their prey. Additionally, collection for the pet trade, although not a major threat on a global scale, may locally deplete populations if not regulated properly. Therefore, continued monitoring and conservation efforts are essential to ensure the long-term survival of this unique and ecologically important species.

The Green Keelback snake is a captivating reptile with a fascinating array of physical, behavioural, and ecological adaptations. Its presence in Southeast Asian ecosystems contributes to these regions' biodiversity and ecological balance, highlighting the importance of conservation measures to safeguard its future survival.

Reference:

·       Campbell, J. A., & Lamar, W. W. (2004). The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere (Vol. 2). Comstock Publishing Associates.

·       Cox, M. J., van Dijk, P. P., Nabhitabhata, J., Thirakhupt, K., & Thirakhupt, K. (1998). A Photographic Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. Sanibel Island, FL: Ralph Curtis Publishing.

·       Das, I. (2012). A Naturalist's Guide to the Snakes of Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: John Beaufoy Publishing.

·       Deepak, V., & Karanth, P. (2018). A Review of the Green Keelback Snake, Rhabdophis nigrocinctus (Serpentes: Colubridae), from India with the First Detailed Account of Natural History, Morphology and Lineage Diversity in the Western Ghats Radiation. Taprobanica, 10(2), 111-126.

·       Gower, D. J., Captain, A., & Thakur, S. (2008). Snake (Reptilia: Squamata) Species Richness in India: An Updated Database. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 5(8), 3079–3088.

·       Guo, P., & Deng, X. (2009). Redescription of Rhabdophis nuchalis (Serpentes: Colubridae), a Rare Snake from Sichuan, China. Russian Journal of Herpetology, 16(3), 209-215.

·       IUCN. (2021). Rhabdophis nigrocinctus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T198273A151796452. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T198273A151796452.en

·       Malhotra, A., & Thorpe, R. S. (2004). A Phylogeny of the Trimeresurus Group of Asian Pitvipers: New Evidence from a Mitochondrial Gene Tree. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 32(1), 83-100.

·       Manthey, U., & Grossmann, W. (1997). Amphibien & Reptilien Südostasiens. Natur und Tier-Verlag.

·       Mori, S., Saito, R., & Tanaka, S. (2016). Toxin Sequestration and Maintenance of Toxin Levels in Snakes: Lessons from Rhabdophis Keelbacks. Toxicon, 119, 27-33.

·       Murphy, J. C., & Voris, H. K. (2014). A Checklist and Key to the Homalopsid Snakes (Reptilia, Squamata, Serpentes), with the Description of New Genera. Fieldiana: Life and Earth Sciences, 8, 1-43.

·       Schleich, H. H., Kästle, W., & Kabisch, K. (1996). Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal: Biology, Systematics, Field Guide. A. R. G. Gantner Verlag K. G.

·       Smith, M. A. (1943). The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma: Reptilia and Amphibia (Vol. III, Serpentes). London, UK: Taylor & Francis.

·       Sodhi, N. S., & Koh, L. P. (2008). Conservation and Ecosystem Services of Tropical Rainforests. In N. S. Sodhi & L. P. Koh (Eds.), Conservation Biology for All (pp. 87-106). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

·       Uetz, P., Freed, P., Hošek, J. (Eds.). (2021). The Reptile Database. http://www.reptile-database.org. Accessed on 20th March 2024.

·       Utiger, U., Schätti, B., & Helfenberger, N. (2005). The Oriental Colubrine Genus Coelognathus Fitzinger, 1843 and Classification of Old and New World Racers and Ratsnakes (Reptilia, Squamata, Colubridae, Colubrinae). Russian Journal of Herpetology, 12(1), 39-60.

·       Vogel, G., & Böhme, W. (2011). Contribution to the Herpetology of South-West India: A New Survey of the Reptiles of the Agasthyamalai Range. Bonner Zoologische Beiträge, 56(1-2), 5-34.

·       Whitaker, R., & Captain, A. (2004). Snakes of India: The Field Guide. Chennai, India: Draco Books.

·       Zug, G. R., Brown, H. H. K., & Schulte II, J. A. (2006). Systematics of the Garden Lizards, Calotes Versicolor Group (Reptilia, Squamata, Agamidae), in Myanmar: Central Dry Zone Populations. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 57(35), 955-971.

·       Jayawardena, S., & Gomez, M. V. (2017). An Overview of Amphibians and Reptiles of Sri Lanka. In A. Sooriyabandara, M. Ekanayake, & A. Sooriyabandara (Eds.), Diversity and Conservation of Asian Primates (pp. 237-255). Springer.

·       Bhupathy, S., & Vogel, G. (2013). Long-term herpetological studies in South Asia: A review of history, recent contributions, and future research prospects. In G. G. Raju, & K. R. Subramanian (Eds.), Recent Trends in Biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (pp. 225-254). Zoological Survey of India.

·       Inger, R. F., & Marx, H. (1965). The Systematics and Evolution of the Oriental Colubrid Snakes of the Genus Calamaria. Fieldiana: Zoology, 49(1), 1-304.

·       Das, A., & Vijayakumar, S. P. (2020). The Herpetofauna of India: Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation. In K. Kunte, & U. Ramakrishnan (Eds.), State of India's Biodiversity and Conservation (pp. 457-483). Springer.

·       Zug, G. R., Brown, H. H. K., & Schulte II, J. A. (2006). Systematics of the Garden Lizards, Calotes Versicolor Group (Reptilia, Squamata, Agamidae), in Myanmar: Central Dry Zone Populations. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 57(35), 955-971.

·   Das, A., & Bhupathy, S. (2019). Diversity and distribution of snakes in India: Conservation strategies. In M. Singh, G. J. Singh, S. P. Vijayakumar, & M. Shekhawat (Eds.), Perspectives in Animal Ecology and Reproduction Vol. 11: Herpetology (pp. 53-84). Scientific Publishers.